Apart from its ability to impart a sweet taste and provide energy that is rapidly available to the brain, sugar is mainly a texturing agent. It helps give structure to biscuits, confectionary and chocolate products. By lowering the freezing point of water, sugar prevents sorbets and ice creams from developing coarse ice crystals and thus melting too soon.

Sugar is also valued as a carrier for dyestuffs in pastry and cooking. When added to certain doughs, sugar also promotes yeast fermentation and contributes to more efficient aeration of the dough. When added to the must in winemaking, sugar is fermented by the yeasts, which convert it into alcohol.

And of course, sugar is a natural preservative. In compotes, syrups, preserved fruit and jam, it traps the available water and inhibits the development of micro-organisms. For frozen fruit, it acts as an antioxidant. Mixed with lemon juice in the proportion of 10% of the weight of fruit, it improves the fruit’s conservation at the time of freezing and preserves its taste.

Source: IFN

In France as in other countries, nutrition and public-health specialists draw up recommended nutritional intake guidelines for the main nutrients necessary at various stages in life. These recommended nutritional intake guidelines are based on the feeding habits of the population and they may vary from country to country.

On the Asian continent, some populations traditionally produce and consume milk and dairy products (India and Mongolia among others), while others don’t. This is the case for most Chinese, even though milk was introduced into China by the emperors of the Manchu dynasty, who originated from Mongolia.

It should be noted that osteoporosis is also prevalent among the Chinese (and will become increasingly so, as the expectation of life increases, since osteoporosis only manifests itself after a certain age). This is borne out in various studies, and a noteworthy policy aim adopted by the present Chinese government for reasons of public health is the development of a national milk and dairy industry.

And finally, one should be cautious when comparing different dietary models and behaviour patterns in different population groups from different countries, since other specific foods or behaviours could be protective against this pathology.

Source: IFN

Dried pulses are sources of starches, protein and fibre. Most of them contain very few lipids. Consequently, dried pulses are not fattening, unless they are served with foods that have a high energy content, particularly ones that are rich in lipids.

Dried pulses can make you feel satisfyingly well-fed in proportion to their calorie content, not only because of their low impact on the blood-sugar level, but also because they contain many proteins (6 to 9 g per 100 g). Proteins are the nutrient which, according to many studies, give the most satisfying feeling of fullness for a given calorie content.
 
While tucking into a fine hot pot casserole must remain an occasional treat because of its high fat content, eating dried pulses cooked with little fat is perfectly compatible with a healthy diet, and contributes to balanced nutrition and a controlled intake of food because they are filling.

Source: IFN

Dried pulses generally have a high iron content (approximately 7 mg per 100 g of beans, chick peas or dry lentils) but little of it is assimilated by the organism owing to the presence of other naturally occurring substances (phytate). Nevertheless, iron assimilation is improved when vitamin C is present in the meal (citrus fruit, parsley…).

Source: IFN 

Scientific studies have shown that calcium in water was well absorbed and used by the organism, and the same has been demonstrated for magnesium in water.

On the other hand, we have no equivalent scientific studies for fluorine in water.

Source: IFN

Dried pulses are among the foods that have a low glycaemic index, and are recommended for diabetic patients to eat: ingesting this type of carbohydrate helps patients to regulate their glycaemia, avoiding glycaemia and insulin-secretion peaks. Moreover, foods with a low glycaemic index have a beneficial effect on patients’ fasting blood lipid levels.

Source: IFN

Fish and meat are part of the same food group and are broadly equivalent, although the higher proportion of saturated fatty acids in meat than in fish makes meat less satisfactory than fish on this precise point. However, fish does not provide as much iron as meat, so care is needed to balance the diet, particularly if you consume fish but no meat.

Source: IFN

It all depends on what we are talking about. Only fruit juice pressed at home or carrying the wording “100% pure juice” can replace a fruit and contribute to fulfilling the nutritional objectives (the much-publicised "5 per day"). Even so, you should not replace each fruit by a glass of fruit juice, which is higher in calories and less filling than a whole fruit.

Source: IFN

Obviously, you have to be sensible. If you eat pounds and pounds of fruit, sugar intake will be appreciable. What’s more, consuming excessive quantities of one type of food often results in eating lesser quantities of others that are just as necessary. Two or three fruits per day is a good average!

Source: IFN

A hard thing to do, unless you completely change your eating habits. Dairy foods are an essential source of calcium, in both quantity and quality. Dairy calcium is regarded as the "reference" calcium.

A glass of milk (250 ml) provides 300 mg of calcium. The same quantity is contained in 2 yoghurts, 30 g of Comté [hard cheese], 80 g of Camembert [soft cheese], 300 g of fromage blanc curds. Calcium in milk and dairy products is recognised as being more bioavailable than calcium from plant sources. Fruit and vegetables, as well as certain (calcium-rich) mineral waters, can provide additional sources of this mineral.

Source: IFN

The diversity of ingredients and recipes makes for a wide variety of biscuits.

After flour, sugar is one of the traditional ingredients of every recipe, whether for home-cooked biscuits or shop-bought ones. A child needs both simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates to satisfy its energy requirements.

Some biscuits are low in fat: less than 1 g of lipids per biscuit consumed: gingerbread, boudoir biscuits, petit-beurre biscuits and jam-filled biscuits generally.

Source: IFN

They are rich in folates (vitamin B9), to exemplify 200 g of cooked beans provide 5 times as much as a portion of fresh fruit.

Source: IFN

The longer they are cooked, the more vitamins and minerals are lost: cooking vegetables in boiling water for a prolonged period can cause losses of up to 40%. So it is better to eat them raw whenever possible, or cook them rapidly (in a pressure cooker or wok, by steaming, etc…).

However, eating food raw is not always the ideal way to eat it. This is true of tomato lycopene. This carotenoid is sought-after for its antioxidant properties, and becomes much more bio-available when the tomato is cooked or processed. However, when it is cooked, the tomato loses vitamin C.

Source: IFN

The "Hollywood", "pineapple", "grape" or "grapefruit" diets have enjoyed some media acclaim, but are not advisable. They contain few proteins if any, and cause muscle-tissue loss, as well as entailing a number of risks (tiredness, vulnerability to infection, gall-bladder or kidney stones, etc…).

Source: IFN

Alcohol provides 29 kJ (7 kcal) per gramme, representing a sizeable energy intake for regular drinkers. In addition, some drinks contain sugars: natural sweet wines, aperitifs, beers, etc., that contribute 17 kJ (4 kcal) per gramme of sugar to the energy intake.

2 glasses of dry wine provide 565 kJ (135 kcal), a 25cl “demi” (short half-pint) of beer, 525 kJ (125 kcal) and a (5 cl) glass of aperitif such as port, Muscat or Vermouth provides an average of 315 kJ (75 kcal).

Source: IFN

For people in good health, there is no problem in the normal consumption of butter as part of a balanced diet. What is damaging is excess.

It should be realised that several factors are involved in the increase in cholesterol level: heredity, the lack of physical activity, obesity… but also an unbalanced diet. People with a predisposition or who are watching their cholesterol level, and who have to maintain dietary restrictions, should seek their doctor’s advice.

Source: IFN

The nutritional composition of different kinds of bread varies little, and mainly according to how refined the flour is. The higher the content of wholemeal flour, the richer the content of proteins, fibres, mineral salts and vitamins of the B group.

Product (100 g)	kJ	kcal	Proteins (g)	Lipids (g)	Carbohydrates (g)	Fibres (g)
White bread*	1145	274	8	1	58	3.5
Rye bread*	999	239	7	1	51	5.5
Wholemeal bread*	1020	244	8	2	49	8.5
Wrapped wholemeal tin loaf or round loaf***	941-1083	225-259	10 to 12	2 to 3	41 to 46	6
Tin loaf or round loaf*	1133-1254	271-300	6 to 8	3 to 13	40 to 54	2 to 3
Bran loaf**	1062	254	11	2	48	8
Milk bread*	1262-1534	302-367	9	6-13	53-54	2.5
Toast*	1250	299	10	3	59	2.5
Toast with wheatgerm**	1685	403	11	10	67	5

Sources:
*    CIQUAL Table (French IT centre on food quality)
**   Dr Patrick Sérog, Dr Jean-Michel Cohen "Savoir manger, le guide des aliments"
*** Packaging

Source: IFN

A portion of cooked rice or of cooked pasta (200 g) provides the same quantity of calories (approximately 1 020kJ (240 Kcal)).

Source: IFN

Antioxidants protect the organism from free radicals (molecules with a suspected role in the development of cancer and cardiovascular illnesses, as well as in the ageing process). A good many of these antioxidants (vitamins E, C, carotenoids, flavonoids…) are provided by food, particularly fruit and vegetables. Tea is particularly rich in flavonoids (catechins [especially in green tea], quercetin, theaflavins and thearubigins [in black tea]), which are antioxidants having a role in protecting the organism.

Source: IFN

Breakfast should primarily contribute to carbohydrates intake (complex and simple). In general it is better to eat bread, rusks or cereals for breakfast, rather than sweet pastries with a high fat content; as an example, a croissant provides 10g of lipids. Consideration should be taken regarding what is spread on bread or rusks (butter, jam …) and cereals should be chosen according to your needs and tastes.
 
It’s all a matter of preference and habits …

Source: IFN

Carbohydrates should represent 50 to 55% of total daily calorie intake. Eating bread or another cereal food with each meal is an easy way of ensuring sufficient intake of complex carbohydrates.

Source: IFN

The quantities of dairy products to consume each day are calculated on the basis of calcium requirements, dairy products being the principal source of calcium (in France, for example, dairy products contribute 70% of calcium intake). These requirements vary according to age and physiological circumstances. To avoid getting involved in tedious calculations, it is sufficient to remember that you need to consume one dairy product with each meal (including after school snack for children and adolescents), i.e. 3 to 4 daily.

It should be realised that only 20% of the cholesterol in the blood is provided by food, and the remaining 80% is synthesised by the organism. The egg yolk does indeed contain cholesterol, but that does not mean having to eliminate eggs in the case of excessively high cholesterol levels. We know that it is more effective to act on the quantity and quality of fats consumed than upon the actual cholesterol intake from food: you should limit the intake of saturated fatty acids from animal fats (butter cheese, prepared meat …) and increase the intake of fats and oils that are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (oils, margarine). Accordingly, persons with high blood cholesterol levels are advised to eat 2 to 3 eggs per week, without allowing for eggs contained in prepared foods.

Source: IFN

The average cholesterol content of meat is moderate, close to that of fish, less than 80 mg for a 100 g portion. However, the cholesterol content of foods is of less concern than their saturated fatty acid content, which has distinctly more influence on blood cholesterol levels.

In practice, this means you should opt for meat cuts with no visible fat, that is to say, those that are not streaked or veined with fat or those in which the fat can easily be removed from the lean. The cooking method should be appropriate, limiting any added cooking fat, and vegetable oils or fats should be preferred whenever they are necessary.

Source: IFN

Meat is part of a balanced diet for seniors, and is even recommended, since it provides both animal proteins of a high biological value and trace elements including iron, zinc and selenium.

The muscle mass starts to diminish when adulthood is reached, and the pace at which it diminishes increases after the age of 50: the muscles represent approximately 45% of body weight between the ages of 20 and 30, falling to only 27% of body weight at the age of 70. This tendency to lose muscle tissue accentuates if food intake of proteins is insufficient. To slow the muscle-tissue loss, protein intake must be sufficient and physical activity is encouraged. It is preferable to choose the meat cuts according to the way they are to be cooked, and according to the strength of the chewing muscles: thus, long-cooking cuts for braising or boiling should be preferred.
 
It is important to encourage the elderly to eat meat, since they often lack appetite for it.

Source: IFN

Humans are said to be the only species to drink milk in adulthood... True, but we are also the only species that cooks its food and have domesticated numerous animal and plant species. Mankind is the only species to have taken such advantage of its food environment (selection, production, preservation, preparation). And this is true of dairy products, which he has consumed in varied forms for over 8 000 years.

In addition, biologically, man is an omnivore and has to find the nutrients that are necessary to him in all the different groups of food. In all this variety, obviously, the choices of food must be made according to the principles of a balanced diet, but it also has to cater for socio-cultural needs, in which enjoyment, taste and identity are also important. His omnivorousness (combined with the ability to choose) has enabled man to live in all regions and under every climate of the earth, and meet his needs from local food resources. Those local resources set the pattern for specific feeding models. There is not just one feeding model, but several of them, and this accounts for the variety and richness of the different cooking traditions of the world in which milk has found its place alongside other foods.

Source: IFN

It is important to realise that the quantity of calcium fixed in the bones depends on the quantity of calcium absorbed by the intestine, and the amount eliminated by the kidneys in the urine. In the short term, high protein consumption can cause calcium loss through urine. This effect is offset, however, by the quantity of calcium absorbed by the intestine. Most studies show that high consumers of animal proteins have a higher bone weight than lower animal protein consumers. It is important to consume proteins in sufficient quantity to keep the bones healthy.

Source: IFN

Numerous meat cuts have a lower lipid content than certain types of fish. Most cuts of beef for example, contain less than 6% fat, while some beef cuts such as topside or rump steak have lipid contents as low as 2.5%, among the leanest for meat and fish taken together.

Pork meat is often regarded as fatty. In actual fact, pork fat lies just below the skin. So it is easy to remove, before or after cooking. The largest pork muscles have a low lipid content (1.5 to 2%); the average is some 6%. Pork lipids contain a relatively high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. A special feature of monogastric animals (non- ruminants, such as pigs) is that they deposit the fatty acids they consume in their fatty tissue without any chemical transformation. Thus the composition of the fat can be modified at least partly by changing a pig’s diet, and thus improve the meat’s nutritional quality.

The lipid content of meat varies according to the cut and not just according to the species. So lean pieces and fattier pieces can be found in all species. The lipid content of fish varies widely according to species and also according to the time of year.

Examples of lipid contents for the main fresh meat cuts:

While breast milk or its substitutes are complete foods for new-born babies, dairy milk is not a complete food, and no food is for that matter! On the other hand, along with other dairy products, it constitutes a group of nutrients that are essential to a balanced diet.

Source: IFN

Sugar is exclusively formed of glucose and fructose, and therefore sometimes referred to as providing "empty calories". That overlooks the fact that people virtually never eat sugar by the spoonful, and that in most cases, it is consumed with foods that are sources of nutrients.

Source: IFN

Whether whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed, milk always contains the same amount of calcium, approximately 1200 mg per litre. The main differences in the nutritional composition of these types of milk are their lipid (fat) content and the content of fat-soluble vitamins (A and D). Whether whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed, milk remains an excellent source of calcium and of proteins of high nutritional value.

Source: IFN

When combined with a dairy product or a fruit, biscuits can help achieve a balanced afternoon-snack: they are cereal-based foods (wheat flour is the main ingredient) that supply both simple and complex carbohydrates.

Source: IFN

If you are watching your weight, you need to strike a balance between energy intake and expenditure, while maintaining a varied diet. Thus, cheese should not be cut out of the diet, especially since it is rich in calcium. Some cheeses have a high fat content, so it is best to eat them in reasonable quantities. But it is entirely possible to choose, from among the vast palette of cheeses that exist, ones with a fat content suitable to your needs. There are also low-fat cheeses.

Source: IFN

The “French paradox” – the property attributed to red wine of decreasing the risk of coronary thrombosis – is observed for all alcoholic drinks. It has been observed for consumption of approximately 1 to 1 ½ glasses* per day (between 10 and 20g of alcohol). Beyond that level, the benefits are outweighed by the bad effects. These beneficial effects are observed only when consumption is regular and daily; it should not be consumed all at once at the weekend.
 
*The standard glass of wine = 10 cl = 10 g of alcohol

Source: IFN

An erroneous preconception must be dispelled: drinking only outside meals incurs the risk of drinking insufficient water during the day. Meals should be used as the opportunity to drink water, consuming 2 to 3 glasses of water has never worked any mischief on digestion.

Source: IFN

Dairy proteins, like those in meat, fish and eggs, have a high nutritional value, since they contain satisfactory proportions of all the amino acids that are essential to the human organism. In addition to the essential role of dairy proteins in building tissue, they have been shown in recent studies to have likely biological effects on different systems of the organism: the immune and nervous systems, the circulatory system (by lowering blood pressure), the digestive system (calcium uptake), and the cellular system (antibacterial).

Source: IFN

• “Soft” dry fruit (apricots, raisins, dates, figs, prunes…) are rich in carbohydrates and low in fat. They are sources of fibre, vitamins and minerals (vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene, vitamins E and niacin (PP), iron, magnesium…). The fragility of vitamin C means that there is virtually none in dried fruit.
  
  The richness of the carbohydrates contained within their small volume makes dry fruit a favourite food of sports people during or after physical exertion (mountain biking, hiking, walking, marathon running, etc...). The most calorie-rich of these foods are raisins (1340 kJ/100 g or 320 kcal/100 g) followed by dates (1255 kJ/100g or 300 kcal/100 g).
  
  The richest in potassium and sodium are dried apricots. Dried banana has the highest magnesium content. Figs have the most calcium.

• Nuts (walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds) are rich in oil: they provide energy in the form of lipids (fatty acids, especially mono- and polyunsaturated ones), and therefore have a very high calorie content (2510 kJ/100g or 600 kcal/100 g). They are rich in fibre, minerals (magnesium, calcium, iron, phosphorus…) and vitamins (B1, B2, B5, B6, B9, E, PP).

Source: IFN

"Unprocessed” means that the refined fat or oil has undergone no changes in its nature. “Hydrogenated” oil or fat means that hydrogenation has been performed, i.e. a process designed to give an appropriate texture to the final product. To make margarine spread well, it has to be hydrogenated, resulting in the saturation of the fatty acids.

Source: IFN

Fatty acids are the main constituents of fats and oils. Their molecules can have two different chemical structures: The most common is the "cis" form, but they can also exist in the "trans" form. This trans form has two origins: it is derived either from the biohydrogenation process (hydrogenation occurring spontaneously in the stomach of ruminants) or from the partial hydrogenation used to obtain a firm texture.

Note that the term "trans" has nothing to do with the term transgenic.

Some trans fatty acids when consumed to excess can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. It should, however, be stated that almost all margarines and fat- or oil-based spreads contain less than 1% of trans fatty acids, which could be considered negligible.

Source: IFN

Bread is made from flour, water, yeast and salt. It is especially rich in complex carbohydrates (averaging 55 g/100 g). Bread’s glycaemic index varies, averaging a value greater than 70. Bread also contains proteins, vitamins of the B group and mineral salts, such as those of potassium (140 to 225 mg/100 g). As a rule, bread contributes very little fat. The fibre content varies (from 4 to 9g/100 g) and depends on how refined the flour is. Bread’s sodium content averages 650 mg per 100 g.

Source: IFN

In cases of allergy to cow’s-milk proteins, the diet must exclude all foods containing them. That means milk and products derived from it (yoghurt, cheese, milk desserts…) and all products containing milk, milk proteins, or milk-protein derivatives present in certain industrial foods. You should examine the labels; if in doubt, you should make enquiries to the companies’ quality and/or consumer departments.

Consumption of butter should be questioned. Caution: the proteins to exclude from the diet are not always confined to cow’s-milk proteins. Cross-allergies can also occur with ewe’s-milk or goat’s-milk proteins as well as with soya proteins.

The problems that may affect young breast-fed infants who are weaned on breast-milk substitutes are too severe to be discussed here, and the best specialist advice should be sought for problems of this kind.

Source: IFN

The World Health Organisation (WHO) states moderate consumption of alcohol to be the equivalent of 2 glasses* per day for a woman, and 3 glasses* per day for a man (on account of metabolic differences). Beyond that level, the risks of illness and behavioural disorders increase appreciably (in particular, there is a risk of increased lipid levels in the blood, and of high blood pressure).

*The standard glass of wine = 10 g of alcohol

 Source: IFN

From an energy perspective butter and margarine are similar in fat/oil content.

From the perspective of their (saturated, mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated) fatty acid content, butter and margarine differ. All margarines are richer than butter in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (because they use vegetable oils and fats), while butter has a majority of saturated fatty acids (of animal origin).

It is desirable to strike a balance in the use of the different products.

For further details on the precise composition of margarines or fat- or oil-based spreads, you should refer to the nutritional labelling on the product packaging.

Source: IFN

The nutritional value of eggs lies chiefly in their providing proteins of good biological value; an average-sized egg (60 g) provides approximately 7 g of proteins, these proteins are rich in essential amino acids, with a very good balance between those amino acids, so that egg protein can be regarded as a reference protein. To exemplify, 2 eggs provide as much protein as 100 g of meat or 100 g of fish.

The energy value for an average egg (60 g) is approximately 376 kJ (90 kcal). The lipid content is 7 g, most of those lipids being contained in the yolk. 2/3 of the fatty acids are unsaturated. An egg also contains 180 mg of cholesterol. An egg is rich in vitamins (A, D, E) and trace elements (iron and zinc).

Source: IFN

The omega-3 fatty acids in frozen fish are found to degrade over time, with the extent of which depends upon the initial quality of the product, the conditions for freezing and the storage temperature (the best results are obtained with a storage temperature at or below –30°C, for a storage time of between 6 months and 1 year). The fatty acids in tinned fish degrade far more slowly.

In tinned foods, some loss of vitamins is observed, due to their diffusion in the liquid, and to the sterilisation temperature. But overall, their nutritional quality remains very high.

As regards smoked fish, particularly those of the salmonid family (e.g. salmon), the smoking process does not incur any degradation of the fatty acids. Degradation, if it occurs, would be attributable to the quality of the raw material, the preservation method and problems in keeping the food properly refrigerated and frozen. Some smoked fish, such as kippers, have a high salt content (necessary to the process and for preserving the fish).

Source: IFN

The main thing is to eat 2 to 3 fruits per day, regardless of whether you do so at the start or end of a meal, at breakfast or at dinner, or inbetween meals. Whenever you eat it, fruit keeps its nutritional qualities.

Source: IFN

Provitamin A is especially abundant in vegetables and fruit coloured yellow, red or green (carrots, spinach, watercress, cabbage, mangoes, apricots…). Vitamin C, by comparison, goes hand in hand with high levels of acidity (blackberries, guava, parsley, peppers, kiwis, lemon and other citrus fruit …). That is why it is important to vary fruit consumption.

Generally speaking, the vitamins are found in the most highly-coloured parts of fruit and vegetables (the most green lettuce leaves).

Source: IFN 

Among others, bananas for potassium and magnesium, kiwis for magnesium, citrus fruit and berries for calcium. Leafed vegetables provide valuable quantities of magnesium, potassium, iron, copper and calcium.

In some vegetables with a high concentration of oxalic acid (spinach, sorrel, beetroot and rhubarb…) little or none of the calcium is absorbed.

Source: IFN

Citrus fruit and red berries (oranges …, strawberries, raspberries …) provide between 7 and 10% of carbohydrates, fruits with cores and pipes (apples, pears …), between 10 and 15 %. Somewhat more sugar (15 to 20%) is found in grapes, cherries and bananas (when the latter are ripe, otherwise, they mainly contain starches).

Source: IFN

The main reason is that very small children are liable to choke on them, but there is also the risk of allergy to groundnut products, which can have very serious consequences in very young children.

Source: IFN

The proteins in dried pulses have a composition of amino acids that complement those of cereals. With a high content of lysin, but low in methionin and sulphurous amino acids, they provide a harmonious balance with cereals which, on the other hand are low in lysin but not in sulphurous amino acids. The right proportion is 2/3 cereals and 1/3 dried pulses.

Source: IFN

Whether fresh, tinned or frozen, fruit and vegetables are virtually the only source of vitamin C for the human organism. They also provide vitamins of the B group, beta-carotene (provitamin A) (which could explain why they protect against cardiovascular diseases and certain forms of cancer), an appreciable quantity of minerals and trace elements (potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, copper etc…) and polyphenols. They are also rich in fibre which optimises bowel movement. Public-health bodies generally recommend eating at least 5 fruits or vegetables each day.

Source: IFN