1. Why is agriculture so important to ensuring a safe and consistent food supply?

Agriculture is the world's largest economic sector. On a worldwide basis, more people are involved in agriculture than in all the other occupations combined.

Looking back through wars, famines and plagues, food shortages and starvation have been common throughout human history and there have been many grim predictions that gains in food production would not be able to keep pace with increases in population. To date, through invention and innovation, man has managed to keep up.

The world population is growing by 86 million per year and the United Nations estimates that the total is already over 6 billion people. It is predicted that the world population will reach over 9 billion by 2050 and although the proportion that is hungry and malnourished is slowly declining, the absolute number is still increasing. Today, the estimated number of people who are hungry and malnourished is around 830 million people, one quarter of them children below 5 years of age.

2. How has agriculture changed over the years?

While many of the basic steps in agriculture have remained the same -tilling, planting, harvesting, raising livestock and marketing-, farming techniques have changed dramatically over the years. The modern farmer has had to become increasingly conscious of costs and profits, and pay much greater attention to efficiency and business management.

In Europe, there has been a trend towards specialisation in agricultural enterprises and amalgamation of smaller farm holdings into larger units. Production methods are standardised and refined. In the EU, 6.9 million people are employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing, which represents about 4.5 per cent of employment and 1.8 per cent of the Union's Gross Domestic Product (1999). Average crop yields have increased by more than 55 per cent since the 1950s, the period generally taken as the beginning of the Green Revolution, and farm sizes have increased too, reaching an average size of 18.4 hectares (1997). Through economies of scale, farmers can increase yields and productivity and use methods that lend themselves to mechanisation. The increase in mechanisation is reflected in the decline over the past 50 years in the labour force that is engaged in agriculture in Europe.

3. What are the safety risks in agriculture and food production?

The use of selective breeding techniques, fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides and fungicides in farming has dramatically increased the efficiency of food production. These modern production methods have reduced the cost and increased the variety of foods available. Because food production is so complex, a systematic approach is needed to identify potential hazards at each point in the food chain so as to avoid outbreaks of food-borne illness and contamination of foodstuffs. To know more about food safety.

Food-borne exposure to agricultural and environmental chemicals is of great public concern and, owing to the development of sensitive methods of detection, trace amounts of potentially harmful chemicals can be detected in many foods. Fortunately, the levels of human exposure to these chemicals are generally well below the tolerable daily intakes and the regulatory limits set by international committees. Nevertheless there are still cases of inappropriate use of agrochemicals, and analyses of foodstuffs sometimes detect pesticide residues of compounds that should not have been applied. Constant surveillance and monitoring in the use of pesticides is therefore very important.

Microbiological contamination of food is the main cause of foodborne illness and the emergence of new strains of food-borne pathogens such as E. coli 0157 and Salmonella enteriditis phage type 4 are of particular concern. There is, however, good evidence that the application of good manufacturing practises have resulted in a decline in microbiological infections resulting from infected foods.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD PRODUCTION HAZARDS
Food hazards	Risk level
	Developing countries	Developed countries
Microbiological contamination (e.g. bacteria, viruses, parasites, mould and algal toxins)	Very high	Moderate
Naturally occurring toxicants in food (e.g. alkaloids, legume toxins, cyanogenic glycosides)	High	Low
Contaminants in food (e.g. heavy metals, organic chemicals)	Moderate	Low

4. Why are pesticides used and how is their use regulated?

Pesticides are chemicals used to protect crops from insects (insecticides), weeds and fungal attack (herbicides and fungicides) and rodents (rodenticides).

Pest problems and their management vary widely throughout Europe and depend on climate, soil types and many other conditions. The use of pesticides has enabled the production of a sufficient quantity of agricultural produce and raw materials of appropriate quality and acceptable cost. Chemical pest control has, therefore, won a central place in modern agriculture, contributing to the dramatic increase in yields that has been achieved in recent decades for most major cereal, fruit and vegetable crops. The farmer benefits from more efficient production, the food processor from a more even quality of raw material and the consumer from quality, low-cost products. The use of pesticides has also allowed growers to produce crops in otherwise unsuitable locations, extend growing seasons, maintain product quality and extend shelf-life.

Most chemicals used as pesticides however are toxic and the major argument against their use is the health risk factor and the danger of environmental pollution. These concerns, including the potential chronic effects, form the basis of all regulations that control the use of pesticides, the setting of safety standards and the monitoring of residues on foods.

The approval and use of pesticides is controlled by EU Council Directive 91/414/EEC, which concerns the placing of plant protection products on the market. Pesticides undergo rigid testing procedures before they are accepted for registration by European or national authorities. The tests on pesticides must prove that the product, at the intended level of use:

• Has real value and will work as intended;
• Will have no negative side effects in humans, either during use on the farm or from residues that may remain in food;
• Will have no negative environmental effects.

By way of additional measures to protect consumers from harmful effects, maximum residue levels for particular pesticides in specified foods are prescribed by three European Directives. These are:

• Council Directive 86/362/EEC on the fixing of maximum levels for pesticide residues in and on cereals
• Council Directive 86/363/EEC on the fixing of maximum levels for pesticide residues in and on foodstuffs of animal origin (namely meat and milk and derived products)
• Council Directive 90/642/EEC on the fixing of maximum levels for pesticide residues in or on certain products of plant origin, including fruit and vegetables. For fruit and vegetables, Commission Directive 79/700/EEC also establishes Community methods of sampling for the official control of pesticide residues

These regulations are applied within the Member States of the EU and there are regular reviews of the situation to improve coordination and quality of monitoring pesticide residues in food. Maximum levels of pesticide residues are also set for foods for babies and young children (i.e. infant formula and follow-on formula).

As with the use of any potentially injurious chemical substance, the use of pesticides must take into consideration the balance of benefits versus the possible risk to human health or to the degradation of the quality of the environment.

5. How is the food supply regulated for contaminants other than pesticides?

Contaminants and other undesirable substances may enter the food chain at all levels, from the growth and production of raw materials to the distribution and consumption of the final product. Examples include naturally occurring plant toxins, aflatoxins, dioxins and unintentional contamination with heavy metals or other substances. The European Community procedures for contaminants in food have been laid down by Council Regulation 315/93/EEC. This regulation defines "contaminant" as any substance not intentionally added to food, which is present in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport or holding of such food, or as a result of environmental contamination. Extraneous matter, such as insect fragments, animal hair etc, is not covered by this definition.

Maximum levels have been set for certain contaminants in food, including a group of mycotoxins known as aflatoxins. These are naturally-occurring toxicants produced by moulds in improperly stored produce. Maximum levels are set for nuts, cereals, milk, dried fruits (the most commonly affected foods).

Arsenic, lead, cadmium and mercury-the so-called heavy metals-also have maximum limits.

The Council Regulation 2377/90/EEC establishes the maximum limits for veterinary medicinal products authorised in foodstuffs of animal origin and prohibits the administration to animals of specified hazardous and unlicensed substances, including certain substances that have a hormonal action.

6. How is the surveillance of foodstuffs undertaken and what parties are responsible?

National governments are responsible for ensuring compliance with EU legislation. Their surveillance programmes cover a wide range of potential contaminants and undesirable substances, including pesticides, mycotoxins, heavy metals, nitrates, radioisotopes and veterinary drug residues. The screening procedures relate to the source of the raw material, the sensitivity of the product category and to the limits and tolerances set by the EU and other international regulatory bodies. For example, the presence of residues in infant and dietetic foods would be particularly objectionable; therefore, extra vigilance is observed when dealing with such products.

In addition to general surveillance, if concerns are identified about a specific contaminant, attention is focused on such compounds. Typical examples include the growth regulator alar in apples, aflatoxins in nuts, patulin in apple juice and apple products, lead in water etc.

7. What is organically-produced food and how is it regulated?

Organically produced food is a fast growing area in Europe. It is defined as the product of a farming system, which avoids the use of man-made fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. Instead, the agricultural systems rely on crop rotation, animal and plant manures, some hand weeding and biological pest control. "Organic" farming is the description used in English-speaking countries, whereas in other markets "Bio" or "Eco" are the more usual product descriptions.

The main principles used in the production of organic foods include:

• The use of minimal "inputs" such as fertilisers and pesticides;
• The use of some "natural" pesticides (synthetic pesticides are not permitted);
• The establishment of standards for allowable materials, restricted materials and prohibited materials;
• The tolerance of low levels of some synthetic pesticide residues on organic produce resulting from pesticide "drift" from other fields or from the soil in which synthetic pesticides were previously used.

Because organic food production is a specific system of production, it is essential to ensure that there is a credible guarantee of authenticity of organic production methods from primary production to consumption. In 1991, the European Union passed legislation 2092/91, which sets out in detail how food must be produced, processed and packaged to qualify for the description "organic". The regulation also specifies detailed criteria for the inspection and subsequent certification of food producers, importers and processors.

Are organically produced fruits and vegetables safer or more nutritious than conventionally produced produce?

There is no evidence that organically produced food is any safer, more nutritious than its conventionally produced counterpart.

Although organically produced foods cannot be defined as pesticide free, the direct use of other than "traditional" agricultural chemicals is prohibited. One of the most commonly used fertilisers in organic production is manure. Farmyard manure is also used in conventional production methods. In both cases their use needs to be properly managed to reduce the risk of possible contamination of agricultural produce with pathogens (harmful bacteria, especially E. coli 0157) and to avoid the possible contamination of ground and surface waters.

To help reduce any risk from contamination, fruits and salad vegetables, whether organic or non-organic, should be thoroughly washed before consumption. To know more about the consumer's role in safety practises.

8. What is biotechnology (genetic modification)?

In its broadest definition, biotechnology is any technique, which uses living organisms to make products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microbes for specific uses. This definition includes the traditional methods of plant breeding, animal husbandry and fermentation, which can trace their roots back thousands of years. It also covers the methods of modern biotechnology such as the industrial use of recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), cell fusion and novel bioprocessing techniques.

An important part of modern biotechnology is the understanding, transferring and modification of genes, the units that allow all characteristics to be inherited, whether this be the maximum yield of a crop, the colour of a fruit or the enzymes produced by a strain of yeast.

The information that genes contain can be transferred between different species of animals, plants or bacteria to confer specific benefits. For example, the gene for a bacterial protein that kills insect pests has successfully been introduced into a range of crops, reducing the need for chemical insecticides. In addition to transferring genes between species, it is also possible to "switch off" undesirable traits. For example, this technique has been used to switch off the gene for softening in the tomato, giving a product with improved keeping qualities.

The introduction of modern biotechnology into Europe agriculture has raised a substantial debate in our society. Only very few crops are currently approved for use.

9. What is meant by "sustainable agriculture"?

The growth in the population and improvements in living standards in many countries have resulted in rising consumption and increased demands on the world's natural resources.

By definition, sustainability refers to the long-term endurance of a system. Sustainable agriculture aims to farm foods in a manner that is efficient and productive while conserving and improving the environment and local communities. The concept of sustainable agriculture includes activities such as keeping inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides as low as possible while still producing high-yielding and good quality crops; ensuring that any adverse effects on the environment are minimised and helping to improve conditions for members of the local community by the provision of jobs and the care of the environment.

The approach to sustainable agriculture will obviously vary by locality due to differences in local conditions, environment and cultures. The overall aim however, to preserve and improve environmental conditions whilst still achieving optimal output, remains the same.

10. What are the future challenges faced by the agricultural and food industries?

The challenges to the agricultural and food industries in the twenty-first century will include:

• the potential mismatch between global food supplies and human nutritional needs;
• the impact of agriculture on rural employment and income levels;
• the consequences of modern agricultural and food technologies on human and animal welfare;
• the effects of the system of production on the sustainability of the global environment.

Certainly today, farmers, food producers and retailers want to incorporate the major advances in nutritional knowledge and new technological methods to ensure the quantity, safety, quality, choice, variety, convenience and pleasurable attributes of foods in the twenty-first century. There is no doubt that the public need good information about the food chain so that they understand the realities of food production and how everyone involved in it is committed to serving the needs of consumers and to make life better for them.

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ΤΑ ΒΑΣΙΚΑ 06/2006